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However, this study was designed to measure metabolic outcomes, not as a formal toxicology assessment (no histopathology panel, no comprehensive organ function testing reported as primary endpoints)

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NAD+'s metabolic roles encompass several key pathways: Energy production : NAD+ regulates glycolysis, the citric acid (TCA) cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and fatty acid oxidation by functioning as a cofactor for redox reactions Redox balance : The NAD+/NADH ratio controls flux through metabolic pathways, ensuring properly regulated cellular metabolism Mitochondrial function : NAD+ is essential for ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation, where NADH donates electrons to complex I in the electron transport chain Biosynthetic processes : Through its phosphorylated form NADP+, it supports anabolic reactions and cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms NAD+ directly shapes cellular processes that maintain tissue homeostasis